ARTICLE INDEX
Volume 5, Number 3
July 1995

HYDROPOWER--IDAHO'S CLEAN RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE
A significant portion of the electricity used by Idahoans is generated by clean, renewable hydropower. In fact, Idaho is the sixth largest generator of hydroelectricity in the U.S. We use hydropower to heat our homes, run our television sets, and to power our home computers.

Hydropower is often synonymous with dams. Dams trap the water that produces our power. Basically, stored reservoir water flows through penstocks (pipes) at controlled rates and turns turbines to produce electricity. This electricity is moved to our homes and work places via power grids.

There are many positive aspects to hydropower. Hydropower is clean--it produces no air or thermal pollution. It is renewable--the power source will not become exhausted. This power source is also inexpensive compared to other energy sources. In fact our power rates in Idaho are among the most inexpensive in the U.S.--largely due to hydropower!

Nationally, hydropower is not that important as it currently provides 3 percent of all the energy used and 10 percent of our power. The national share of power provided by hydropower has been steadily decreasing (from a high of 40 percent in 1925) because of increased power demand across the country without a corresponding increase in hydropower plant construction. There are two major reasons for the relative decline of hydropower. First, few good dam sites are left in the continental U.S. Secondly, environmental opposition based on potential loss of fish and wildlife habitats has made new dam construction virtually impossible.

On a national basis, fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) and nuclear power provide 96 percent of our energy needs (Fig 1). These forms of energy are considered finite or non-renewable energy resources--because eventually these energy supplies will be exhausted. It is believed that there is only a 22-year supply of oil and a 40-year supply of natural gas left on this planet based on current and projected energy consumption rates. Nuclear power is also considered non-renewable because its power source--uranium-235 is also finite. The other 4 percent of our energy supplies are provided by renewable sources--hydropower, solar, geothermal, and wind power.

Figure 1.		Figure 2.

As our supply of fossil fuels become exhausted, we will have to increasingly depend on renewable energy sources to meet our needs. This will require an increased investment and use of wind, solar, and geothermal power (Fig 2).
(R. L. Mahler)

IFB WELLHEAD SURVEY: WASHINGTON COUNTY
On April 5, 1995, Washington County became the 22nd county in Idaho to take part in the wellhead survey program coordinated by the Idaho Farm Bureau Federation (IFB). Although this program was coordinated by the IFB it was truly a cooperative effort as five different government agencies and the Idaho Farm Bureau Federation united to make the program a success. The Idaho Department of Agriculture, Natural Resource Conservation Service, Weiser River Soil and Water Conservation District, and the University of Idaho Cooperative Extension System assisted with program logistics, sample bottle distribution, and dissemination of information. The University of Idaho College of Agriculture's Analytical Laboratory (UI-AL) had major roles in planning and designing the quality assurance pahse of the analytical part of the program and analyzed all samples for nitrates. The Idaho Division of Environmental Quality designed the quality assurance plan for the field effort, the questionnaire, and sampling procedures for the public. The United States Geological Survey also participated in this study.

Quality control in this sampling project was the top priority. Blind spiked samples and blanks were randomly dispersed with farmer-provided samples to assure top quality. In addition, in some cases, duplicate farm wellhead samples were included. Nitrates were determined on water samples by the UI-AL in Moscow. After collection, a preservative was added to the sample before shipment to Moscow. Samples were run in the laboratory within 72 hours after collection. The most modern analytical techniques and equipment were used in this operation. A high degree of confidence should be placed on the numbers obtained from these samples.

In Washington County 89 private wellhead samples were collected from farmers and rural residents (Fig 1). Thirty percent of the sampled wells in Washington county contained nitrate-N levels greater than 10 ppm, which is the National Public Health Service drinking water standard. Seventy percent of the wells had nitrate-N levels above 2.0 ppm; 13 percent contained nitrate-N values between 2.0 and 4.9 ppm; and 57 percent of the wells had values of 5.0 ppm or greater.

A greater percentage of wells in this survey exceed the federal health standard for nitrates than the other 21 Idaho counties sampled to date (Ada, Benewah, Bonner, Bonneville, Butte, Canyon, Cassia, Custer, Elmore, Fremont, Gem, Jefferson, Jerome, Latah, Lemhi, Madison, Minidoka, Owyhee, Payette, Teton, and Twin Falls).

Figure 1.

The fact that 70 percent of the wells sampled in this study exceeded 2.0 ppm NO₃-N suggests that nitrate contamination of groundwater in Washington County is a serious problem that warrants the immediate implementation of BMPs to prevent further deterioration of water quality. Best management practices are management strategies that can be used by growers and/or well owners to reduce or eliminate further introductions of nitrate into groundwater.

The 40 percent of sampled wells that contained between 2 and 10 ppm NO₃-N should be checked again in 2 to 3 years. Although these wells meet federal nitrate drinking water standards, it is probable that human activity has introduced nitrate into water in the vicinity of these wells since detected NO₃-N levels are greater than normal, natural nitrate values in aquifers. Nitrogen fertilizer is the likely source of the elevated nitrogen levels in the groundwater; however, animal wastes, septic systems, and plant residues may also be responsible for the elevated nitrate-N values. Changes in the management of nitrogen fertilization may be warranted in certain situations.

Even though this data suggested that nitrate levels in groundwater are higher in Washington County than in other areas of the Treasure Valley (Ada, Canyon, Gem, Owyhee, and Payette counties), farming practices in Washington County may not be that different than in the rest of the region. Rather, groundwater in Washington County happens to be more vulnerable due to shallower water tables and sandier textured soils.

RAISING MONEY FOR LOCAL GROUNDWATER PROTECTION
(This is the third in a series of articles on local approaches to procure funding to protect groundwater.)
There are four basic options to raise revenue for local groundwater protection programs. These options include: (1) local taxes, (2) local fees, (3) private sector investments, and (4) capital financing sources. The previous issue of WATER QUALITY UPDATE (Volume 5, Number 2) dealt with local taxes. This issue addresses local fees.

Option #2: Local Fees
Impact fees, permit and inspection fees, fines and penalties, unit charges, access fees, and service fees are options in this category.

Impact fees--Developers pay impact fees to local governments to finance the public facilities needed to serve their developments. Typically, impact fees are paid at the time of application for a building permit.

• Many communities in California, Florida, Maryland, Texas, and other states have used impact fees to finance roads, sewers, schools, and parks.
• Developers in San Bernardino County, California, pay impact fees, a portion of which is used for groundwater monitoring and administration of a permit program for new wells.
• Spokane County, Washington, assesses septic tank use fees on all new residential developments that are not connected to the public collection system. Revenues are used to recover the public costs of water treatment, monitoring, and corrective action in aquifers contaminated by seepage from septic tanks.

Permit and inspection fees--Access fees include connection fees for water and sewer lines providing localized service. Another example of access fees is a general facilities charge for capital costs that can be allocated to each added user. General facilities charges may include a local connection component and a component that recoups the costs of system-wide improvements.

In a variation on access fees, some cities have sold access rights or "capacity fixtures" in as yet unbuilt water or sewer facilities. Buyers purchase capacity credits to secure rights to future water supply or sewage treatment capacity. These credits enable suppliers to obtain funds from users before construction. Escondido, California, financed a $12 million treatment plant by selling only half its capacity to developers and residents. Houston, Texas, has financed several plants this way.

Where access fees are used only for capital expenditures, as is the practice in many water systems, they may have limited applicability to wellhead protection programs. In addition, they are paid only by new or prospective users; consequently, inequities may arise if all users benefit from an improvement. Yet access fees and access rights are simple and cost-effective to administer.

• In Escondido, the city spent only $60,000 in administrative and consultant costs to raise $12 million.
• Houston has saved considerable resources by using their program to help select and build only those facilities that can pay for themselves.

Service fees are attractive when services are difficult to price on a unit basis or when users cannot be charged according to their level of use. Most service fees are structured simply to minimize administrative costs and to ensure that payments broadly reflect the distribution of benefits received (acreage-based fees for stormwater control, for example). As such, they are viewed as an equitable way to pay for services. They are generally managed through enterprise funds. Service funds are dedicated to the fund, from which spending can only finance the service in question. Revenues are very predictable and can be substantial, depending on the level of the fee.

Examples:

• Bellevue, Washington, created a model utility for stormwater drainage, which levies service fees to recover the cost of drainage improvements. Fees are based on acreage and percent impervious surface.
• The Santa Clara Valley Water District levies pumping fees at the wellhead, based on the volume of water withdrawn. Fees are set to recover the district's cost of recharging groundwater supplies.

OFF-HIGHWAY RECREATIONISTS SERIOUS ABOUT CLEAN WATER
As a nation of outdoor enthusiasts, increasing numbers of Americans are taking to the back country, and more and more are doing so on wheels. Use of off-highway motorcycles and all-terrain vehicles nearly tripled between 1980 and 1990.

This love affair is not without its price, however. Off-Highway Vehicle (OHV) managers and riders agree that unmanaged use can be detrimental to natural resources. While specially designated OHV trails are engineered to handle wildland traffic, unmanaged use of slopes, streambanks, and stream channels can cause erosion, turbidity, and sedimentation.

Understanding that responsible use minimizes damage, user groups are moving to educate their peers and conserve the resources they prize. Tread Lightly! and the National Off-Highway Vehicle Conservation Council are leaders in a public/private movement to encourage environmentally and socially responsible outdoor recreation.

"We are a land ethics organization. Our job is to increase awareness of how to lessen the impact of outdoor recreation," says Tread Lightly! Director Lori McNeely. Begun nearly 10 years ago as a U.S. Forest Service program, Tread Lightly! is now incorporated as a nonprofit organization and backed by industry, government, public interest, communications, and user groups.

The organization's principles protect water resources by encourage OHV enthusiasts to reduce erosion by staying on designated trails, avoiding streambanks and lakeshores, and staying off slopes and out of stream channels. The message: "Defaced roads and trails by irresponsible people are often closed. By using common sense and courtesy, what is available today will be there to enjoy tomorrow."

Among the educational materials Tread Lightly! has created for recreationists is a specialty book for mountain bikers to add to an already popular manual on responsible four-wheeling. More books are in the works, each targeting one of Tread Lightly!'s other audiences: snowmobilers, dirt bikers, all-terrain vehicle riders, hikers, cross-country skiers, and equestrians.

Also on the horizon is an exciting program to help manufacturers develop ads demonstrating environmental stewardship. "The public is continually bombarded with advertising that promotes recreation that is destructive to public and private lands. This type of advertising directly affects the image and behavior of vehicle operators, resulting in land closures," McNeely said. She would like to see more advertisements like the Toyota ad "Only animals leave tracks in the wilderness," which exhorts OHVers to respect the land.

Sharing the leading edge of OHV education is the National Off-Highway Vehicle Conservation Council (NOHVCC), a non-profit education and communication group that emphasizes environmental stewardship. NOHVCC partners with the National 4-H Council in preparing stories for the "Rider Network News," which goes to approximately 10,000 young all-terrain vehicle riders. The publication fosters the development of responsible, environmentally friendly OHV activities. As a result, some local 4-H chapters adopt environmental stewardship projects doing trail maintenance or erosion prevention. A monitoring program puts the local project in contact with a specialist who can provide pertinent information.
(Adapted from EPA News-Notes No. 40, 1995)

LEAKING PETROLEUM STORAGE TANKS THREATEN OUR GROUNDWATER
Above-ground and underground storage of liquid petroleum products such as motor fuel and heating fuel presents a threat to public health and the environment. Nearly one out of every four underground storage tanks in the United States may now be leaking, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. If an underground petroleum tank is more than 20 years old, especially if it's not protected against corrosion, the potential for leaking increases dramatically. Newer tanks and piping can leak, too, especially if they weren't installed properly.

Even a small gasoline leak of one drop per second can result in the release of about 400 gallons of gasoline into the groundwater in one year. Even a few quarts of gasoline in the groundwater may be enough to severely pollute a farmstead's drinking water. At low levels of contamination, fuel contaminants in water cannot be detected by smell or taste, yet the seemingly pure water may be contaminated to the point of affecting human health.

Preventing tank spills and leaks is especially important because of how rapidly gasoline, diesel, and fuel oil can move through surface layers and into groundwater. Also, vapors from an underground leak that collect in basements, sumps, or other underground structures have the potential to explode. Selling property with an old underground tank may also be difficult.

Petroleum fuels contain a number of potentially toxic compounds, including common solvents, such as benzene, toluene, and xylene, and additives, such as ethylene dibromide (EDB) and organic lead compounds. EDB is a carcinogen (cancer-causer) in laboratory animals, and benzene is considered a human carcinogen.

If you are planning to install a new petroleum storage tank you need to consider its location. The most important aspect of your liquid petroleum storage tank location is how close it is to your drinking water well.

Even though diesel fuel and fuel oil are more dense than gasoline and move more slowly through the soil, they, too, will eventually reach groundwater.

Every site has unique geologic and hydrologic conditions that can affect groundwater movement. How quickly the petroleum product reaches groundwater will also depend upon local soils. The more porous the soil (sands and gravels, for example), the faster the rate of downward movement to groundwater. You may choose to locate a new tank more than 100 feet away from your well, to provide reasonable assurance that subsurface flow or seepage of contaminated groundwater will not reach your well. If possible, the tank should also be located downslope from the well. Along with maintaining adequate distance from your drinking water well, choose a location for a new tank based on the following considerations:

• Soil characteristics. Highly corrosive clays, wet soils, cinders, and acid (low pH) soils can significantly speed up the rate of corrosion of underground metal tanks and piping. Using clean backfill during installation can decrease the negative effects of surrounding soils.
• Soil stability. Assess the ability of the underlying soil to support both underground and above-ground tanks. For special tank locations, such as hillsides, be sure to properly anchor and hold tanks in place. Be sure that pipes cannot twist or break if the tank is bumped or disturbed.

• Current and previous land use. Sites that contain abandoned pipes and tanks, agricultural drainage tiles or waste materials pose special installation problems. Any metal already in the ground at your chosen site will increase corrosion rates for the new tank.
• Traffic. Assess traffic patterns around the tank. Determine whether the location of the tank or dispenser will block movement of farm vehicles during refueling or cause special problems if any work needs to be done on the tank. Protect piping from collisions with farm and fuel vehicles.
• Depth to groundwater. Floodways or areas where the water table is close to the surface are poor locations for storage tanks. Tanks placed in such areas require special installation. To reduce pollution potential, an above-ground tank may be preferable to an underground tank.

IWRRI AWARDS FUNDING TO SEVEN WATER PROJECTS
The Idaho Water Resources Research Institute (IWRRI) has selected seven projects submitted by faculty at Idaho universities throughout the state for funding this coming year. Faculty submitted 20 projects for funding consideration. Most water problems in the state of Idaho may be classified under two broad categories: water supply and management and water quality. The following projects were selected because they address critical water resource questions in Idaho. Following is a summary of objectives and expectations of funded projects:

"Aquatic Macrophytes of the Snake River Basin: Species taxonomy, distribution, and ecology" was submitted by C. Michael Falter (Fisheries) of the University of Idaho. Dr. Falter's study will produce a treatise on the composition, distribution, and habitat characteristics of aquatic macrophytes in the Snake River basin. This work will be based on distributional information newly obtained in the 1990s, reflecting the tremendous geographic and ecologic changes in the Snake River basin over the past 20 years.

"Assessment of Groundwater Remediation Methodology at the Sweet Avenue Site, Moscow, Idaho: Phase I, Site Characterization" was submitted by Dale R. Ralston (Hydrogeology) and Scott T. Kellogg (Microbiology) of the University of Idaho. Their work will be addressing the priority of remediation of groundwater and surface water. Development of new and innovative methods for monitoring and remediating groundwater contamination sites is important to the nation, region, and state. This project will be the development of the Sweet Avenue Site as a research facility. Research will describe the hydrogeological, chemical, and biological characteristics of the site based on a one-year data base.

Dr. Kellogg also submitted another funded project entitled "Controlling Factors for Giardia and Cryptosporidium Distribution in Idaho Surface Waters." The proposed statewide investigation will test new methodology successfully developed at the University of Idaho for analyzing groundwater systems, but now will be applied to surface waters. Information gathered through this study will provide state agencies an ability to obtain microbial community fingerprint data and their correlations with Giardia and Cryptosporidium in order to help assess impacts on surface water systems.

"Hydrogeology of the Franklin County Landfill Site, Cache Valley, Idaho" was submitted by Paul K. Link and H. Thomas Ore (Geology) of Idaho State University. Research from this project will supply information on the hydrogeology and subsurface sedimentary geology of a chosen landfill in Franklin County, Idaho. In particular, it will allow for detailed aquifer testing and hydrogeologic characterization of the subsurface sediments beyond what the county is required to do by the state.

"Use of Polyacrylamide (PAM) for Furrow Irrigation Management," submitted by Behzad Izadi, Brad A. King, W. Howard Neibling, and M. Saleem Ashraf (Agricultural Engineering--Moscow, Aberdeen and Twin Falls) of the University of Idaho was also funded. This investigation will indicate whether application of a synthetic soil conditioner, PAM, is effective in reducing soil erosion, while increaing irrigation efficiency. Research will provide critical observations and measurements needed to develop educational materials explaining benefits of PAM application for furrow irrigation management in southern Idaho.

"Nutrient Retention and Recycling Using a Constructed Wetland System" was submitted by R. Spackman at the College of Southern Idaho. The research proposed is needed to assist irrigated agriculture's efforts to return irrigation water into the Snake River that meets the quality goals outlined in the Best Management Practices. This project will serve primarily to educate students in the Water Resource Management program on various aspects of agricultural water stewardship.

"Predicting Vegetation Patterns Using GIS in the Toponce Creek Drainage of the Caribou National Forest" was submitted by G. Wayne Minshall (Ecology) of Idaho State University. This study will increase knowledge of how GIS layers of basin geomorphic characteristics such as elevation, slope, soils, and channel hydraulics can be used to predict riparian species distributions and vegetative patterns. GIS databases of soils, vegetation, and elevation will be used as a predictive tool of riparian vegetative patterns following management considerations.

SOLUTION TO "BLUE THUMB" CROSSWORD PUZZLE (May 1995 issue)

Comments to webmistress: karenl@uidaho.edu

All contents copyright © 1997-2003.
College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Idaho.
All rights reserved.

Revised: January 3, 2003

URL: http://www.uidaho.edu/wq/wqu/wqu53.html